Bernard Lewis Islam And The West Pdf Editor
. (1984). (1993). (2002) Influenced Bernard Lewis, (born 31 May 1916) is a historian specializing in. He is also known as a and. Lewis is the Cleveland E.
Dodge of Near Eastern Studies. Lewis' expertise is in the and the interaction between Islam and the West. He is also noted in academic circles for his works on the. Lewis served as a soldier in the British Army in the and during the before being seconded to the. After the war, he returned to the at the and was appointed to the new chair in and Middle Eastern History.
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Bernard Lewis
In 2007 and 1999, respectively, Lewis was called 'the West’s leading interpreter of the Middle East' and 'the most influential postwar historian of Islam and the Middle East.' His advice was frequently sought by policymakers, including the. Lewis, therefore, is generally regarded as the dean of Middle East scholars. However, his support of the and ideals have since come under scrutiny.
Lewis is also notable for his public debates with, who accused Lewis and other of misrepresenting Islam and serving the purposes of imperialist domination, to which Lewis responded by defending Orientalism as a facet of humanism and accusing Said of politicizing the subject. Lewis argues that the deaths of the resulted from a struggle between two nationalistic movements and that there is no proof of intent by the Ottoman government to exterminate the Armenian nation.
These views prompted a number of scholars to accuse Lewis of and resulted in a successful civil lawsuit against him in a French court. Bernard Lewis in 2007 In 1966, Lewis was a founding member of the, (MESA), but in 2007 he broke away and founded (ASMEA) to challenge MESA, which the noted as 'dominated by academics who have been critical of Israel and of America's role in the Middle East.' The organization was formed as an academic society dedicated to promoting high standards of research and teaching in Middle Eastern and African studies and other related fields, with Lewis as Chairman of its academic council. In 1990, the selected Lewis for the, the U.S. Federal government's highest honor for achievement in the. His lecture, entitled 'Western Civilization: A View from the East', was revised and reprinted in under the title 'The Roots of Muslim Rage.' His 2007, given to the, was published as Europe and Islam.
Research Lewis' influence extends beyond academia to the general public. He is a pioneer of the social and economic history of the Middle East and is famous for his extensive research of the. He began his research career with the study of Arab, especially Syrian, history. His first article, dedicated to professional of medieval Islam, had been widely regarded as the most authoritative work on the subject for about thirty years. However, after the establishment of the state of in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found it more and more difficult to conduct archival and field research in the Arab countries, where they were suspected of espionage.
Therefore, Lewis switched to the study of the, while continuing to research Arab history through the Ottoman archives which had only recently been opened to Western researchers. A series of articles that Lewis published over the next several years revolutionized the history of the Middle East by giving a broad picture of Islamic society, including its government, economy, and demographics. Lewis argues that the Middle East is currently backward and its decline was a largely self-inflicted condition resulting from both culture and religion, as opposed to the post-colonialist view which posits the problems of the region as economic and political maldevelopment mainly due to the 19th-century European colonization. In his 1982 work Muslim Discovery of Europe, Lewis argues that Muslim societies could not keep pace with the West and that 'Crusader successes were due in no small part to Muslim weakness.' Further, he suggested that as early as the 11th century Islamic societies were decaying, primarily the byproduct of internal problems like 'cultural arrogance,' which was a barrier to creative borrowing, rather than external pressures like the. In the wake of Soviet and Arab attempts to delegitimize Israel as a racist country, Lewis wrote a study of, Semites and Anti-Semites (1986).
In other works he argued Arab rage against Israel was disproportionate to other tragedies or injustices in the Muslim world, such as the and control of Muslim-majority land in Central Asia, the bloody and destructive fighting during the (1982), the (1992–98), and the (1980–88). External video, In addition to his scholarly works, Lewis wrote several influential books accessible to the general public: The Arabs in History (1950), The Middle East and the West (1964), and The Middle East (1995). In the wake of the, the interest in Lewis's work surged, especially his 1990 essay The Roots of Muslim Rage.
Three of his books were published after 9/11: (written before the attacks), which explored the reasons of the Muslim world's apprehension of (and sometimes outright hostility to) modernization;; and Islam: The Religion and the People. Armenian Genocide. See also: The first two editions of Lewis' The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961 and 1968) describe the as 'the terrible holocaust of 1915, when a million and a half Armenians perished'. In later editions, this text is altered to 'the terrible slaughter of 1915, when, according to estimates, more than a million Armenians perished, as well as an unknown number of.' In this passage, Lewis argues that the deaths were the result of a struggle for the same land between two competing nationalist movements. Lewis was later one of 69 scholars to co-sign a 1985 petition asking the to avoid a resolution condemning the events as genocide. The change in Lewis' textual description of the and his signing of the petition against the Congressional resolution was controversial among some Armenian historians as well as journalists, who suggested that Lewis was engaging in to serve his own political and personal interests.
Lewis called the label 'genocide' the 'Armenian version of this history' in a November 1993 interview with, for which he faced a civil proceeding in a French court. In a subsequent exchange on the pages of Le Monde, Lewis wrote that while 'terrible atrocities' did occur, 'there exists no serious proof of a decision and of a plan of the Ottoman government aiming to exterminate the Armenian nation'. In reference to both these articles, the court stated that Lewis 'failed in his duty of objectivity and prudence in expressing himself without nuance on such a sensitive subject'. He was ordered to pay one as damages for his statements on the Armenian Genocide in Ottoman Turkey. Three other court cases against Bernard Lewis failed in the Paris tribunal, including one filed by the Armenian National Committee of France and two filed. Lewis' views on the Armenian Genocide were criticized by a number of historians and sociologists, among them, and. Lewis has argued for his denial stance that: The meaning of genocide is the planned destruction of a religious and ethnic group, as far as it is known to me, there is no evidence for that in the case of the Armenians.
There is no evidence of a decision to massacre. On the contrary, there is considerable evidence of attempts to prevent it, which were not very successful. Yes there were tremendous massacres, the numbers are very uncertain but a million may well be likely. and the issue is not whether the massacres happened or not, but rather if these massacres were as a result of a deliberate preconceived decision of the Turkish government. There is no evidence for such a decision. Lewis stated that he believed 'to make the Armenian Genocide a parallel with the Holocaust in Germany' was 'rather absurd.'
In an interview with, he stated: The deniers of Holocaust have a purpose: to prolong Nazism and to return to Nazi legislation. Nobody wants the 'Young Turks' back, and nobody wants to have back the Ottoman Law. What do the Armenians want? The Armenians want to benefit from both worlds. On the one hand, they speak with pride of their struggle against the Ottoman despotism, while on the other hand, they compare their tragedy to the Jewish Holocaust.
I do not accept this. I do not say that the Armenians did not suffer terribly. But I find enough cause for me to contain their attempts to use the Armenian massacres to diminish the worth of the Jewish Holocaust and to relate to it instead as an ethnic dispute. Lewis has been labelled a genocide denier by, and. Suggested that 'Lewis' stature provided a lofty cover for the Turkish national agenda of obfuscating academic research on the Armenian Genocide'.
Wrote that Lewis' 'seemingly scholarly concern. Of Armenians constituting a threat to the Turks as a rebellious force who together with the Russians threatened the Ottoman Empire, and the insistence that only a policy of deportations was executed, barely conceal the fact that the organized deportations constituted systematic mass murder'. Charny compares the 'logical structures' employed by Lewis in his denial of the genocide to those employed by in his Holocaust. When Lewis received the from US President in November 2006, the objected: 'The President's decision to honor the work of a known genocide denier—an academic mercenary whose politically motivated efforts to cover up the truth run counter to the very principles this award was established to honor—represents a true betrayal of the public trust.' Views and influence on contemporary politics In the mid-1960s, Lewis emerged as a commentator on the issues of the modern Middle East and his analysis of the and the rise of brought him publicity and aroused significant controversy.
American historian has called him 'perhaps the most articulate and learned Zionist advocate in the North American Middle East academic community'. Lewis's policy advice has particular weight thanks to this scholarly authority. Vice President remarked 'in this new century, his wisdom is sought daily by policymakers, diplomats, fellow academics, and the news media.' A harsh critic of the, Lewis continued the liberal tradition in Islamic historical studies. Although his early views had a bearing on his first book The Origins of Ismailism, Lewis subsequently discarded Marxism. His later works are a reaction against the left-wing current of which came to be a significant current in.
Interviewing Bernard Lewis in 2011 Lewis advocated closer Western ties with Israel and Turkey, which he saw as especially important in light of the extension of the Soviet influence in the Middle East. Modern Turkey holds a special place in Lewis's view of the region due to the country's efforts to become a part of the West. He is an Honorary Fellow of the, an honor which is given 'on the basis of generally recognized scholarly distinction and. Long and devoted service to the field of Turkish Studies.' Lewis views and Islam as civilizations that have been in perpetual collision since the advent of Islam in the 7th century.
In his essay The Roots of Muslim Rage (1990), he argued that the struggle between the West and Islam was gathering strength. According to one source, this essay (and Lewis' 1990 Jefferson Lecture on which the article was based) first introduced the term ' to North America.
This essay has been credited with coining the phrase ', which received prominence in the eponymous book. However, another source indicates that Lewis first used the phrase 'clash of civilizations' at a 1957 meeting in Washington where it was recorded in the transcript. In 1998, Lewis read in a London-based newspaper a declaration of war on the United States.
In his essay 'A License to Kill', Lewis indicated he considered bin Laden's language as the 'ideology of ' and warned that bin Laden would be a danger to the West. The essay was published after the and the had begun its hunt for bin Laden in and then in. Jihad Lewis presents some of his conclusions about, law, and the modern day phenomenon of terrorism in his text Islam: The Religion and the People. He writes of jihad as a distinct 'religious obligation', but suggests that 'it is a pity' that people engaging in terrorist activities are not more aware of their own religion: Muslim fighters are commanded not to kill women, children, or the aged unless they attack first; not to torture or otherwise ill-treat prisoners; to give fair warning of the opening of hostilities or their resumption after a truce; and to honor agreements. At no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism.
Philosophy East And West
Nor indeed is there any evidence of the use of terrorism as it is practiced nowadays.' In Lewis' view, the 'by now widespread terrorism practice of suicide bombing is a development of the 20th century' with 'no antecedents in Islamic history, and no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law, or tradition.' He further comments that 'the fanatical warrior offering his victims the choice of the Koran or the sword is not only untrue, it is impossible' and that 'generally speaking, Muslim tolerance of unbelievers was far better than anything available in Christendom, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century.' Debates with Edward Said Lewis is known for his literary debates with, the Palestinian American whose aim was to deconstruct what he called scholarship. Said, who was a professor at, characterized Lewis' work as a prime example of Orientalism in his 1978 book and in his later book. Said asserted that the field of Orientalism was political intellectualism bent on self-affirmation rather than objective study, a form of racism, and a tool of domination. He further questioned the scientific neutrality of some leading Middle East scholars, including Lewis, on the.
In an interview with weekly, Said suggested that Lewis' knowledge of the Middle East was so biased that it could not be taken seriously and claimed 'Bernard Lewis hasn't set foot in the Middle East, in the Arab world, for at least 40 years. He knows something about Turkey, I'm told, but he knows nothing about the Arab world.' Said considered that Lewis treats Islam as a monolithic entity without the nuance of its plurality, internal dynamics, and historical complexities, and accused him of 'demagogy and downright ignorance.' In Covering Islam, Said argued that 'Lewis simply cannot deal with the diversity of Muslim, much less human life, because it is closed to him as something foreign, radically different, and other,' and he criticised Lewis' 'inability to grant that the Islamic peoples are entitled to their own cultural, political, and historical practices, free from Lewis' calculated attempt to show that because they are not Western. They can't be good.'
Rejecting the view that Western scholarship was biased against the Middle East, Lewis responded that Orientalism developed as a facet of European, independently of the past European imperial expansion. He noted the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, yet not in an organized way, but long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East; and that much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism. In his 1993 book Islam and the West, Lewis wrote 'What imperial purpose was served by deciphering the ancient Egyptian language, for example, and then restoring to the Egyptians knowledge of and pride in their forgotten, ancient past?'
Furthermore, Lewis accusing Said of politicizing the scientific study of the Middle East (and Arabic studies in particular); neglecting to critique the scholarly findings of the Orientalists; and giving 'free rein' to his biases. Stance on the Iraq War In 2002, Lewis wrote an article for the regarding the buildup to the entitled 'Time for Toppling', where he stated his opinion that 'a regime change may well be dangerous, but sometimes the dangers of inaction are greater than those of action.' In 2007, described Lewis as 'perhaps the most significant intellectual influence behind the '.
Attributed to Lewis the view that regime change in Iraq would provide a jolt that would 'modernize the Middle East' and suggested that Lewis' allegedly 'orientalist' theories about 'what went wrong' in the Middle East, and other writings, formed the intellectual basis of the push towards war in Iraq. Writing in 2008, Lewis did not advocate imposing freedom and democracy on Islamic nations. 'There are things you can't impose. Freedom, for example. Or democracy. Democracy is a very strong medicine which has to be administered to the patient in small, gradually increasing doses. Otherwise, you risk killing the patient.
In the main, the Muslims have to do it themselves.' , writing for in an article subtitled 'The two Minds of Bernard Lewis', finds Lewis's stance on the war difficult to reconcile with Lewis' past statements cautioning democracy enforcement in the world at large. Buruma ultimately rejects suggestions by his peers that Lewis promotes war with Iraq to safeguard Israel, but instead concludes 'perhaps he loves it the Arab world too much': It is a common phenomenon among Western students of the Orient to fall in love with a civilization.
Such love often ends in bitter impatience when reality fails to conform to the ideal. The rage, in this instance, is that of the Western scholar. His beloved civilization is sick. And what would be more heartwarming to an old Orientalist than to see the greatest Western democracy cure the benighted Muslim?
It is either that or something less charitable: if a final showdown between the great religions is indeed the inevitable result of a millennial clash, then we had better make sure that we win. Alleged nuclear threat from Iran In 2006, Lewis wrote that had been working on a for fifteen years. In August 2006, in an article about whether the world can rely on the concept of as a deterrent in its dealings with Iran, Lewis wrote in the about the significance of 22 August 2006 in the.
The Iranian president had indicated he would respond by that date to U.S. Demands regarding Iran's development of nuclear power. Lewis wrote that the date corresponded to the 27th day of the month of Rajab of the year 1427, the day Muslims commemorate the night flight of from to heaven and back.
Lewis wrote that it would be 'an appropriate date for the apocalyptic ending of Israel and, if necessary, of the world.' According to Lewis, mutual assured destruction is not an effective deterrent in the case of Iran, because of what Lewis describes as the Iranian leadership's 'apocalyptic worldview' and the 'suicide or martyrdom complex that plagues parts of the Islamic world today'.
He then suggested the possibility of a nuclear strike on Israel on 22 August 2006: What is the significance of Aug. This year, Aug. 22 corresponds, in the Islamic calendar, to the 27th day of the month of Rajab of the year 1427.
This, by tradition, is the night when many Muslims commemorate the night flight of Muhammad on the winged horse, first to 'the farthest mosque,' usually identified with Jerusalem, and then to heaven and back. This might well be deemed an appropriate date for the apocalyptic ending of Israel and if necessary of the world. It is far from certain that Mr. Plans any such cataclysmic events precisely for 22 Aug.
But it would be wise to bear the possibility in mind. Lewis' article received significant press coverage.
However, the day passed without any incident. In his 2009 book Engaging the Muslim World, the American academic responded that there was no evidence to suggest that Iran had been working on a nuclear weapon for fifteen years.
He also disagreed with Lewis' suggestion that Ahmadinejad 'might deploy this weapon against Israel on 22 August 2006': See also. References Citations.